Japan by the Japanese/Chapter 13.2

Education in Japan originated in the first foundation of the country. The spirit of loyalty, filial piety, and bravery which constitutes the fundamental character of the nation has been fostered and cultivated from time immemorial. But education, prior to the Restoration in 1867, had been restricted to a narrow scope, a certain class only enjoying its benefits. The subjects of study were also limited to Chinese and Japanese literature, much stress being laid upon morals. Soon after the Restoration the new Government directed serious attention to the subject of education, and consequently the old system was discarded and a new one, entirely different, and such as prevails in the civilized West, was introduced throughout the Empire. Though the educational idea of the nation has gradually developed during the period of more than 2,000 years, yet the present system of education is really the outcome of the great changes effected in the very short period of less than forty years since the Restoration, to which there is scarcely a parallel in the history of Europe or America.

It was in the year 1871, just one year after the adoption of the educational system in England, that saw the establishment of an independent Ministry called the Department of Education, whose head, the Minister of State for Education, became a member of the Cabinet. Two years later an Educational Code, comprising the whole system of Universities, secondary schools, primary schools, etc., was issued. Since then various improvements in the system have been carried out, until we have the organization existing to-day. There has been this steady progress in the educational system for many years, but especially is it true that, during the last five or six years, the advance made in every direction is very remarkable.

The central administrative organ is the Department of Education, with a Minister of State at its head and a Vice-Minister under him. In addition, there are three directors, corresponding to the three bureaus of special school affairs, general school affairs, and technical school affairs; councillors, secretaries, school inspectors, and examiners of school books and charts, who transact the various duties respectively assigned to them. The local administrative body for education comprises three classes: the administrator of the body of the lowest class is the head of a city, town, or village, who has ​charge of primary education; the administrator of the second class is the head of the ‘gun,’ or county, who supervises the educational affairs of towns and villages; the head of the highest is the local Governor, who controls both the primary and secondary education within his jurisdiction, under the supervision of the Minister of State for the Education Department.

Primary schools are designed to give children the rudiments of moral education, and of education specially adapted to render them good members of the community, together with such general knowledge and skill as are necessary for daily life, due attention being paid to their physical development.

Primary schools are divided into ordinary primary schools and higher primary schools. An ordinary primary course and a higher primary course may be established conjointly in one and the same school. The ordinary primary course extends over four years, and the higher primary course over two, three or four years. A supplementary course, extending over not more than two years, may also be arranged in order to give such instruction as is suitable to local requirements.

The subjects of study in ordinary primary schools include morals, the Japanese language, arithmetic, and gymnastics. According to local circumstances, one or more subjects, such as drawing, singing, or manual work, may be added, and, for females, sewing.

The subjects of study in higher primary schools include morals, the Japanese language, arithmetic, Japanese history, geography, sciences, drawing, singing, and gymnastics, and, for females, sewing. In addition, agriculture, commerce, and manual work, may be included for boys, as well as the English language.

A point worthy of special attention is that the moral lessons taught in primary schools are not founded upon any religious doctrine, but are purely secular. In future the text-books for use in primary schools shall, as a general rule, be those for which copyright is reserved by the Department of Education.

The number of classes in a primary school must not be more than twelve; the number of children in one class, not more than seventy in the case of ordinary primary schools, and not more than sixty in the case of higher primary schools.

Children must have completed their sixth year on entering a primary school, and be fully fourteen before leaving, thus allowing the full school term to be eight years. The guardians of children of school age are under the obligation of sending them to school to complete at least the ordinary primary school course. At present, of the school population, more than 90 per cent. are receiving the prescribed course of instruction. And though the education in the higher primary schools ​is not compulsory, 60 per cent. of the graduates of ordinary primary schools pass to the higher primary schools.

A municipal or rural community is under obligation to establish and maintain one or more primary ordinary schools, sufficient in equipment to admit children of school age residing in its jurisdiction. The establishment of higher primary schools is not obligatory. In 1902 the total expenses of cities, towns and villages for primary schools amounted to £2,981,574.

No ordinary primary school established by a city, town, or village, may exact a fee from its pupils, unless under special circumstances, and subject to the approval of the local Governor. The amount of this fee shall not exceed 20 sen (5d.) a month in the case of a school existing in a city, and 10 sen in the case of a school established by a town or village, or a town or village school union. For a higher primary school the amount shall not exceed 60 sen a month in the case of a municipal school, and 30 sen in the case of a rural school. Most of the primary schools are established by municipal and rural communities, those founded by private individuals being few in number. Primary schools established by churches do not number more than ten throughout the country. In 1902 the number of primary schools was 28,381, with 4,980,604 pupils, including 6,351 higher primary schools with 948,777 pupils.

There are three classes of teachers for primary schools: the regular teachers, qualified to teach all the subjects in the regular course; assistant teachers; and those who have to undertake the teaching of special subjects, such as drawing, singing, gymnastics, sewing, English, agriculture, commerce, or manual work: these are called special teachers. All teachers must be provided with a license, but when it is difficult to engage licensed teachers, those not possessing a license may be employed for the time being.

The appointment and dismissal of teachers lie with the local Governor upon the recommendation of the head of a ‘gun’ or city.

The salary of teachers for primary schools established by a city, town, or village, is not less than 25s. nor more than £10 a month. An additional sum for rent may be granted, such expenses being borne by cities, towns, or villages. There is also a law concerning an additional allowance from the national Treasury to teachers for long and meritorious services. A teacher who has been employed for more than fifteen years receives a life pension, and his family is also pensioned after his death. In 1902 the primary school teachers numbered 102,700, of whom 22,225 were unlicensed teachers.

The object of secondary schools is to provide instruction in such higher subjects of general education as are necessary for boys of the middle class.

​In each of the existing forty-seven prefectures, at least one secondary school must be established and maintained. Private individuals may also establish secondary schools in conformity with the regulations.

The course of study occupies five years, with an optional supplementary course not to exceed twelve months.

The following table shows the curriculum of the secondary schools and the number of hours weekly for instruction:

It will be seen from the above table that the curricula are uniform throughout all the secondary schools in Japan, differing in this respect from those in America and Europe, where the course of study is diverse. The instruction in Chinese consists solely of the classics; composition and conversation in modern Chinese not being taught at all, though a great deal of time is devoted to modern sciences. In comparing our secondary schools with those of other counties, it may be said that the Japanese are much like the modern secondary schools in Europe.

Candidates for admission to secondary schools must be over twelve years of age, and must have completed the second year’s course of the higher primary school, so that children who pass on to secondary schools are those who have finished an elementary course covering six years.

As a general rule, text-books used in secondary schools must be those examined and approved by the Minister of Education.

In general, the number of pupils in one secondary school shall not exceed 400, though the number may under special circumstances be increased to 600. One class must not contain more than 50 pupils. Some of the pupils lodge in the school, while others live outside. The number of teachers must be at the rate of at least two per class for a school containing not more than five classes. For every additional class above five, ​the number of teachers must be increased at the rate of one and a half per class.

In 1902 the number of secondary schools was 292, of which 34 were established by private individuals, the others being established and supported by prefectures. The number of pupils was 102,304; of graduates, 9,416; and of teachers, 4,233, of whom 1,832 were not licensed. The public expenditure for secondary schools during that year amounted to £492,140.

The object of the girls’ high school is to provide instruction in such higher subjects of general education as are necessary for girls of the middle classes.

The course of study generally extends over four years, and occasionally five. In addition to the regular course, a supplementary course not exceeding two years may be provided.

The subjects of study are morals, the Japanese language, a foreign language (English or French), history, geography, mathematics, sciences, music, gymnastics, to which pedagogics and manual arts may be added as optional subjects. Besides, for the benefit of those desiring to study such arts as are necessary to females, a special course for arts, extending over not less than two and not more than four years, may be established. A higher course covering two or three years may also be instituted for the benefit of those graduates who are desirous of pursuing some branches of study.

The regulations concerning establishment, qualification of the candidates for admission, text-books, teachers’ salaries, the number of pupils in one school or one class, the number of teachers, etc., do not differ from those of secondary schools.

In 1902 the number of girls’ high schools was 70, of which 8 were founded by private individuals, the pupils numbering 17,540, graduates 3,631, and teachers 988, of whom 420 were not licensed. The public expenditure of girls’ high schools in the same year amounted to £131,493.

The normal schools are of two kinds—namely, ordinary normal and higher normal. Ordinary normal schools are designed to train teachers for primary schools; the higher normal schools, to prepare teachers for secondary schools, girls’ high schools, and ordinary normal schools.

Each prefecture must establish at its own expense at least one ordinary normal school, which may be divided into male and female departments. In some prefectures the two departments are established as independent institutions.

The course of study extends over four years for males and three years for females. The subjects of study for males are morals, pedagogics, Japanese, Chinese, history, geography, mathematics, physics and chemistry, natural history, drawing, ​writing, music, gymnastics and drill. In addition, a foreign language, agriculture, commerce, or manual work, may be included. The subjects of study for females are morals, pedagogics, Japanese, Chinese, history, geography, mathematics, sciences, household management, writing, drawing, music, and gymnastics. A simpler or preparatory normal course to train regular teachers for ordinary primary schools may be added to the regular course.

Candidates for admission to the ordinary normal schools must be between fifteen and twenty years of age, and possess attainments at least equivalent to those who are qualified to serve as assistant teachers in ordinary primary schools.

The pupils’ expenses, including board and lodging, are supplied by the local treasury, and in return for this help the pupils are required to give their services at one or another primary school for ten years in the case of men, and five years in the case of women, from the date of their graduation.

In connection with each ordinary normal school a primary school provides practical experience in teaching for normal students.

The directors are officials of the State, and the teachers enjoy the same treatment as those of secondary schools. As regards the number of students in one school there are no special regulations. In the majority of schools there are about 200 students, while in some are more than 400, all of whom live in the dormitories. The number in one class must be less than 40; the number of teachers is the same as in secondary schools.

In 1902 the number of ordinary normal schools was 54; male students, 11,900; female students, 2,000; male graduates, 2,215; female graduates, 503. It is anticipated that the yearly average of graduates will be at least 3,600. In 1902 the number of teachers was 1,032, of whom 216 were not licensed. The total expenses for the ordinary normal schools in the same year amounted to £302,104.

Higher normal schools are designed to train students as teachers of ordinary normal schools, secondary schools, and girls’ high schools. There are two higher normal schools in Japan—one at Tokyo, the other at Hiroshima—the expense of both being defrayed out of the national Treasury.

The scheme of the school is the division of its courses into preparatory, principal, post-graduate, and special. The period of study extends over one year in the preparatory, three in the principal, and one in the post-graduate course. The preparatory course includes the following subjects, namely: morals, the Japanese language, Chinese literature, English, mathematics, logic, drawing, music, gymnastics and drill. The principal course is divided into five sections—of Japanese ​and Chinese; the English language; history and geography; mathematics, physics, chemistry, and natural history—each section including instruction on allied subjects.

Candidates for admission are selected by examination from among the graduates of ordinary normal schools and secondary schools. The students’ expenses are supplied by the respective schools, and in return for this help it is obligatory on the students to devote their services to educational work for seven years from the date of their graduation.

Connected with the higher normal schools there are a secondary school and a primary school, in order to give students practical training in the art of teaching.

In 1903 there were 807 students, 140 graduates, and 88 instructors, the expenses amounting to £58,844. The higher normal school at Hiroshima was opened in 1902.

The higher normal school for females trains students who wish to become teachers of the female departments of ordinary normal schools and girls’ high schools. It is supported by the national Treasury, there is only one institution of this kind in Japan.

The scheme of the school is divided into a literature course, a science course, and an art course; the period of study extends over four years. In each course the students are required to include kindred subjects. In addition a post-graduate course and a special course are arranged. The students are selected from among the candidates graduating from the female departments of ordinary normal schools or girls’ high schools. Students’ expenses are paid by the school, and in return it is obligatory on the students to give their services to the educational work for five years from the date of their graduation. Attached to the main school are a girls’ high school, a primary school, and a kindergarten, where practical training is given in the art of teaching.

In 1903 there were 361 students, 100 graduates, 52 instructors, the expenses amounting to £9,782.

The object of higher schools is to give preparatory instruction to young men wishing to enter the Imperial Universities. There are eight higher schools, all being maintained by the State. This school, it may be said, is exclusively peculiar to the educational system of Japan, as there is no equivalent either in Europe or America. Under the present circumstances, the use of the Japanese language alone is not yet sufficient for the purpose of University education without the accompaniment of foreign languages, some courses having to be conducted in French, some in German, text-books in Japanese not existing—a fact explaining the raison d’être of the higher school. So much emphasis is laid on the foreign languages in the ​curriculum that in some classes as much as thirteen hours a week are devoted to them. The students have to choose English and German, or English and French or German and French. The chief aim is to train the students to fully understand foreign literature rather than to render them fluent conversationalists.

The course of study extends over three years, and is divided into three departments. The first is intended to give the necessary instruction to those aspiring to enter the institutions of law or literature in the Imperial Universities; the second department is for candidates of the Colleges of Engineering, Science, and Agriculture; and the third department for candidates for the College of Medicine. It has been stated that the curricula in secondary schools are uniform throughout Japan, but we find in the higher schools three different departments, or courses, and the higher schools form the connecting link between secondary schools and Universities. The higher schools may therefore be considered the continuation of, or, rather, the supplementary instruction to, the secondary schools; and secondary education in Japan may be said to be common to all students for the first five years, while it is divided into three courses for the last three years.

Candidates for admission must be over seventeen years of age, and must have completed the secondary school course, or have the same degree of proficiency. Some of the students board in the school, while others live outside. The directors and instructors are officials of the State. Among the instructors of foreign languages are more than twenty foreigners who are teaching their own tongue. In 1903 there were 4,781 students, 875 graduates, and 301 instructors. The expenses amounted to £106,090.

The Imperial University consists of the University Hall and the colleges. The University Hall is established for the purpose of facilitating original investigation in arts and sciences, and the colleges for that of instruction, both theoretical and practical, in the special branches of study. There are two Universities maintained by the State—one at Tokyo, called the Imperial University of Tokyo; and the other at Kyoto, the Imperial University of Kyoto.

The Imperial University of Tokyo comprises six colleges—namely, law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, and agriculture; that at Kyoto comprises four—namely, law, medicine, literature, science and engineering. Twenty years ago the majority of the professors were invited from Europe and America, but nowadays the Japanese instructors are in the majority, the number of foreign professors being less than ten. The native professors are chiefly those who, after graduating at ​the University, have studied several years abroad, with the exception of those teaching subjects relating to Japan and China.

The equipment of the University can fairly bear comparison with that of the famous Universities of Europe and America, and the standard of instruction is also as high.

Candidates for admission to each of the colleges must be the graduates of the higher schools, or those who possess attainments at least equivalent to them; consequently, it is evident that only those who have received their education for fourteen years—namely, six in primary, five in secondary, and three in higher schools—can enter the Imperial Universities. Candidates for admission to the University Hall must be the graduates of one of the colleges, or those who possess equivalent attainments.

Degrees are conferred upon those who have made original investigations in art and sciences, and have passed prescribed examinations at the University Hall. The course of study extends over four years in the case of students of law and medicine, and three years in the case of students of the other colleges. Unlike European Universities, students have to enter upon a regular prescribed course of study, with a few optional subjects.

The Presidents of the Imperial Universities control all the University affairs, with a director in each college. There are over 100 chairs in the Imperial University at Tokyo, each chair being occupied by a professor, the number of chairs in the Kyoto University being somewhat fewer. In 1903 there were 4,076 students, 716 graduates of colleges, 44 graduates of University Hall, and 349 members of the faculties. The expenses amounted to £238,303.

Special schools are the institutions devoted to higher education in the arts and sciences, Imperial Universities, higher schools, and technical schools, being excepted. The State special schools include five special schools of medicine, a foreign languages school, a fine arts school, and an academy of music. The majority of the special schools established by the local governments or by private individuals are those of medicine, law, and literature. Generally speaking, the course of study extends over at least three years. Candidates for admission to special schools must be the graduates of secondary schools or girls’ high schools, or those possessing equivalent attainments. In 1903 there were 57 special schools, including 45 private establishments, with 14,573 students and 1,971 graduates. The expenses in the State and local special schools amounted to £42,440 and £22,865 respectively.

The object of technical schools is to provide necessary ​instruction to those aspiring to engage in industry, agriculture, commerce, etc. There are industrial schools, agricultural schools, and commercial schools; and in each there are three grades—lower, intermediate, and higher.

The number of the State higher technical schools is seven—two agricultural, two commercial, and three industrial. In 1903 there were 2,972 students, 509 graduates, and 236 instructors. The expenses amounted to £80,468. Technical schools of intermediate and lower grades are chiefly established and maintained by prefectures, counties, or cities, and granted a certain allowance of pecuniary aid from the national Treasury, which amounts to £32,000 for the current year.

Candidates for admission to technical schools of intermediate grade must be over fourteen years of age, and have received eight years’ education in primary schools. The minimum course of study extends over six months, the maximum over four years. There are also technical supplementary schools.

The technical schools in Japan comprise at present all possible kinds of technical schools, and each kind has three grades; indeed, it may be said that technical education in Japan has made steady progress. No expense is spared on the part of the Government to encourage the development of technical education. In 1902 there were 392 technical schools, of which 221 were technical supplementary schools, with 34,665 students, 5,633 graduates, and 1,986 instructors. The expenses amounted to £228,214.

In addition to those above mentioned, various schools of a miscellaneous character may be established by public communities or by private individuals, with the approval of the supervising authorities. In 1902 there were 1,474 miscellaneous schools, most of them being private establishments, with 96,184 students, 18,685 graduates, and 4,938 teachers. There were 15 blind and dumb schools, with 797 pupils, in 1902. Kindergartens in the same year amounted to 254, with 23,671 infants. The number of libraries does not exceed 50. There are very few at present, but it is highly probable more will be gradually established.